Social movement news Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Social movement news - Essay Example From this above mentioned information, it might be clearly revealed that, in this age post racial period, the issue of ethnic discrimination is a major topic of concern as compared to others. Since, slave era or colonial era, the Asian Americans or the African citizens had to bear huge range of discriminations in all aspects such as educational facilities, voting rights, land acquisition, job employment, and many others. However, due to which, a hug range of Native Americans or Africans had to remain uneducated or jobless, as compared to white Americans. As a result, the level of poverty and unemployment raised that hindered their livelihood and living standard to a significant extent. Apart from this, due to the prevalence of racial discrimination, the African citizens feared to send their kids in schools and colleges to attain educational facilities and so their level of illiteracy increased to a considerable extent mainly among the black citizens of the nation of America as compar ed to others. Other than this, numerous African citizens emigrated from neighbouring countries is also barred to attain respectable positions (Parker & Goering). As a result of which, in spite of high experience and knowledge, the African Americans failed to improve their career objective or goals due to racial discriminations in this age of information technology or globalization. Furthermore, due to which, the level of wages of the African Americans are also quite low as compared to Original (Americans American Civil Liberties Union).

Adopting a simple profit-maximising perspective ..... can have Essay

Adopting a simple profit-maximising perspective ..... can have positive impacts for a firm ..... Discuss - Essay Example Business owners or the management are deemed to focus on maximizing profit in the short-run. Adopting simple profit optimization perspective can have positive results on a firm. This study will explore this assertion with a view to examine the positive impacts of profit optimization. Consideration will also be given to other views that suggest other perspectives that managerial decisions should consider. In today’s market, optimization of profits has gained a wider approach encompassing the consideration of uncertainty of time and value of money. This has added to the initial approach of firm theory arguing that the long-term goal of a firm is to maximize its value. Value of a firm is deemed as the present value, which is given by the expected cash flows. For simplicity, the expected cash flows are equated to profit and the present value is thus given as the value of all the profits or the cash flows, which is discounted at the selected interest rate (Keown, 2003, p. 5). Discounting is done to incorporate the uncertainty of time and value of money in the future. This study will explore the profit optimization perspective and its positive impacts, constraints faced by managerial decisions in their pursuit to optimize profits as well as the best perspective that managers should hold in the management of a firm. Profit optimization is a short-run process that involves determining of price and output levels that gives the highest returns in form of profit. As mentioned by Hirschey (2008, p. 38), the level of activity that maximizes profit in a firm is given at the point where marginal revenue (MR) and the marginal cost (MC) are equal such that any further generation of revenue results offsets cost. A simple focus on profit maximization implies that a firm is simply focused on making profits and the resources are utilized with the sole aim of getting the highest level of profits

How Do Water Boilers Work Environmental Sciences Essay

How Do Water Boilers Work Environmental Sciences Essay A boiler is a closed vessel in which water or other liquid is heated in order to generate steam or vapor which is then used for other external processes. Water is a useful and cheap medium for transferring heat to a process. When water is boiled into steam, its volume increases about 1600 times, generating a force that is very explosive. This can be achieved by combustion of wood, natural gas, coal or oil. Electric steam boilers on the other hand use resistance to produce the required heat. The chemical energy from any of these external fuel sources is converted into heat which is then transferred to the water through radiation which is the transfer of heat from a hot body to a cold body without a conveying medium, conduction which involves the transfer of heat by actual physical contact and by convection, the transfer of heat by a conveying medium like air or water (EuropeanCommission, 2006). Since the development of the first boilers in the 18th century, boilers have evolved so as to increase their efficiency and low-cost design as well as pay more attention to air pollutant emissions like carbon monoxide and hydrogen chloride. These types of emissions depend on the type of fuel used and the load factor of the boiler. The power of a boiler is determined by the required steam mass flow rate, temperature and pressure. The amount of input fuel required depends on the fuel energy content and on the overall energy efficiency. A boilers performance is characterized by its steam pressure and temperature. Saturated steam is steam at boiling temperature for a given pressure, which is what most boilers produce and make use of. If more heat is supplied and the steam pressure rises above the saturation temperature at a given pressure, then the steam becomes superheated steam. This kind of steam though at a higher temperature, can decrease the efficiency of the steam generating plant . If more heat is supplied to the superheated steam, it becomes supercritical steam which can be used in power generation (USEPA, 2004). A closed boiler is one in which all the steam generated is returned to the vessel in form of water and is reused while an open boiler is one that does not return water to the original vessel. The boiler system comprises of three major parts which are: the feed water system, the steam system and the fuel system. The feed system supplies water to the boiler and regulates it to meet the systems demands. The steam system is responsible for collection and control of the steam produced in the boiler. This system is regulated and checked using pressure gauges and is directed to the point of use through an efficient piping system. The fuel system includes all the equipment used to generate the required heat which is dependent on the type of fuel used in the system (Hartford, 1911). There are three basic types of boilers which are used for industrial uses. These are the fire tube, the water tube and the fire box boilers. In the fire tube boilers, heat passes through the tubes which are surrounded by the water being heated. These tubes are arranged in banks so that the heat produced can pass through the vessel many times before escaping. Fire tube boilers are relatively small in size compared to the other type of boilers. In water tube boilers, heat is made to pass through the tubes which contain the water. These tubes are then interconnected to a steam outlet for distribution to the plant system. These types of boilers are the most commonly used because they are larger in size and can therefore withstand greater pressures and temperatures, though their initial and maintenance costs are higher. In a fire box boiler, the hot gases from the fire box which is the space where the fuel is burned are channeled into the tubes where they heat the water. Water is supplied to the boiler from the boiler feed water plant also known as the demineralizer plant. The demineralizer removes all salts present in the water by removal of hydrogen ions which are replaced with sulphuric acid. This water should be free of any foreign materials that could cause harm to the boiler and also decrease its performance. Some of these harmful substances include oxygen, positively charged ions of calcium, aluminum, sodium and zinc. There are also other negatively charged ions like carbonates, bicarbonates, silica and fluorides which could harm the boiler efficiency. The removal of oxygen is usually done in the de-aerator located after the ion exchanger. The de-aeration of the condensate returning from the process ensures that the water is free of oxygen bubbles that may inhibit heat transfer. In de-aeration, the dissolved gases are removed by preheating the feed water before it is allowed to enter the boiler. The removal of these gases is very important to the boiler equipment longevity as well as safety of operation. De-aeration can be done by chemical de-aeration, mechanical de-aeration or both. The chemical treatment is used to remove harmful substances that could cause build up in the heat transfer equipment. The economizer is used to preheat the water entering the boiler. This helps reduce fuel cost making the boiler more efficient (Shields, 1961). The water vessel in a boiler is connected to the heat source by metal rods which heat the water and convert it to steam. The steam is allowed to collect in the dome before exiting the boiler. The function of the dome is to force the steam to become highly condensed in order for it to exit the boiler with a large amount of pressure. A boiler also contains a drain which removes impurities from the water vessel and a chimney to allow heat to escape once it has passed the water vessel. It is vital for all boilers to have safety valves in order to allow excess steam to be released in order to prevent explosions. The heart of a boiler is a pressure vessel which is a closed container designed to hold gases or liquids at a pressure. This pressure vessel is usually made of steel or wrought iron. This pressure is obtained from an indirect source or from the application of heat from a direct or indirect source. If not properly maintained, boilers can be a source of serious injuries and can lead to huge losses in form of property destruction. Thin and brittle metals that make up some parts of the boiler could rapture or poorly welded seams could open up leading to violent eruptions of the pressurized steam. Collapsed boiler tubes could also spray the hot steam they contain into the air injuring the around (Reeves, 2001). Even with the best pretreatment programs, boiler feed water often contain some degree of impurities which normally accumulate in the boiler. The increasing accumulation of dissolved solids may lead to carry over of boiler water into the steam which may cause damage to the piping system as well as the process equipment. These suspended solids could also lead to the formation of sludge which will lead to a reduction of the boiler efficiency as well as it s heat transfer capability. In order to avoid these problems, water should often be discharged from the boiler in order to control the concentrations of the suspended and dissolved solids in the boiler. Discharging of the surface water is usually done in order to get rid of the dissolved solids while the discharging of bottom water is done in order to remove the sludge from the bottom of the boiler. Boiler blow down i.e. discharge of water from the boiler is a very important aspect of the boiler maintenance. Lack of proper blow down can lead to increased fuel consumption, extra chemical treatments for the boiler as well as increased heat loss. Also, since the blow down water has the same temperature as the boiler water, it can be reused in the boiler operations once removed. However, excessive blow down can lead to wastage of water, energy and treatment. The two major types of boiler blow downs are intermittent and continuous blow down. Intermittent blow down is done by manually fitting a valve at the bottom of the boiler which is removes the unwanted parameters. It requires large short-term increases in the amount of feed water put into the boiler which leads to a substantial amount of heat energy being lost. Alternatively, continuous blow down involves the steady and constant dispatch of small stream of concentrated boiling water being replaced with steady and constant inflow of feed water. The various energy efficiency opportunities in a boiler system can be related to combustion, heat transfer, water quality, avoidable losses and blow down. To maximize a boilers efficiency, the stack temperature should be designed to be as low as possible. Nevertheless, it should not be very low such that water vapor in the exhaust condenses on the stack walls. Automatic blow down controls that sense and respond to the boiler water conductivity and pH should be installed in order to reduce uncontrolled continuous blow down. In oil and coal fired boilers, soot should be removed as it acts as an insulator against heat transfer.

All My Sons By Author Miller - Discuss the ways in which the characters

All My Sons By Author Miller - Discuss the ways in which the characters of Joe and Chris are presented in the play. mitigate. Go onto discuss how a clash between them is inevitable. 1. Discuss the ways in which the characters of Joe and Chris are presented in the play. mitigate 2. Go onto discuss how a clash between them is inevitable. 3. Discuss how the clash arises from the difference in their values. As the play progresses, the characteristics, personality and values of both Joe and Chris Keller are revealed slowly. At the beginning, Joe is described as a rather popular man who is sociable and respected among his friends. He enjoys spending time with his neighbors. He is successful in his business; he gives us an impression of a pragmatic, self-made, man among men. He is described as a good husband and a loving, sensible father. He cares about his family and puts them at a high priority. However, his lack in education and a "peasant-like common sense" resulted in his minimal insight and judgment of the world and the things around him. Although he is not very bright, he is quite frank about it and willing to admit it which is shown in a dialogue between Joe Keller and Frank Lubey where Joe casually proclaimes: "When you look at a page like this you realize how ignorant you are" when he was reading the newspaper. From what he said, it also suggests that he is also somewhat defensive about it. His personality also led to much admiration from his friends and family. At one point, Chris even made a nickname for his father, calling him "Joe McGuts" This shows that he is still well respected after the dramatic indecent with the cracked cylinder heads and how other still think he pulled a fas... ...ight fail and collapse and all his hard work devoted on saving the business for his sons would be ruined. He felt that it was the right thing to do; he does not believe he was guilty in any way. He also felt that everybody else worked for a profit during the war and thought that he ought to as well. The business is the furthest his mind could see. The lives of 21 men meant little to him when it comes to the business. The conscience of what has had done wasn't there, it was real to him. Joe did not realize how the attitude that he adopted would have such a large impact on Chris. Chris was totally shocked by his father's doings. It violated his principles and beliefs altruism and selflessness. He became confused and failed to know what to do with his father. This shattered all trust and bonding between father and son, he failed to close his eyes on guilt.

Mrs Morel, and How She Ruined Lives in Sons and Lovers Essay

Gertrude Morel, a mother whose possessive love for her sons hinders their ability to establish fulfilling relationships with other women, and her detest of her husband closes him out of their lives. Gertrude can not bear to see her children live the life that her husband Walter does so she makes sure that they detest him, especially William and Paul. Mrs Morel did ruin three lives in this novel, Walter’s, William’s, and Paul’s. Walter was a simple miner with simple needs and no motivation or want to advance, when he and Gertrude first met he had thick flowing black hair and a full beard and he also laughed a lot suggesting a happy, relaxed figure. He also portrayed himself as bold and a senior in the mines making a good stable wage, owning his own house and everything in it as well. Gertrude finds her self strangely attracted, despite being described as â€Å"opposite† to her new found love. They rush into marriage but the lust that they had soon fades as the lies that were told are uncovered. Gertrude starts to despise the man she married because he lied to her and goes and spends the money he makes on alcohol instead of on his family. When William is born Gertrude smothers him in love and tries her hardest to keep him away from her husband which makes Walter jealous and angry with her that he can not have the same connection with the child that she does. Gertrude does this with all the children that she and Walter have. The eldest boys are so enveloped by their mother that they can not hold a stable relationship when they grow older because their mother wants to keep them for herself, â€Å"..William and Paul Morel are unable to love when they come to manhood, because their dominant mother holds them back, so that a split occurs between body and soul – their sweethearts getting the former; their mother getting the latter; while the boys themselves are shattered; inwardly in the course of the struggle.† (Spilka, 51) William is the first born son and so he in the one that Gertrude idolizes, he is perfect to her and she wants him to be her little boy forever. When he grows older William soon gets a job in London and moves away leaving his mother and family behind. William send his mother a letter telling her about his new job and his new found girl-friend whom he will be engaged to. William and his betrothed come to visit his family at Christmas, they seem less than impressed with her and her lifestyle especially Gertrude because she treats his family as though they are somehow inferior to her. This does not discourage William to stop loving her. William becomes sick of her when they return to see his family on a vacation, his mother has the same feelings toward her, but he refuses to call off the marriage seeing how far they had come. Later in the year William dies of pneumonia with his mother by his side. Paul is a less important to his mother until William dies, then he becomes her favourite. Paul is more frail than his brother was, and he is very artistic rather than athletic. As Paul grows in sight of his mother her love for him grows stronger because of his stature, and he grows in a way that he cares of what other people feel, especially his mother. He develops an Oedipus Complex towards his mother. â€Å"Oedipus complex makes mother a lover of her son. During childhood it seems normal and acceptable but it is abnormal and almost absurd, when he grows up, to keep such feelings. He will surely have no real love for a woman and no marriage in his life and is doomed to have a tragic ending with his love affairs and to suffer spiritually the rest of his life when his mother is gone.† (Wang) When Paul is older he starts a relationship with a woman named Miriam who wants him to love her as she loves him, she wants his soul, for him to love her with every ounce of his being as she does. Gertrude see’s this and feels threatened by her because Paul’s soul should belong to her, she believes Miriam can have him physical but not spiritually. Gertrude confronts her son about this matter and Paul tells her that he does not love Miriam, that he loves only his mother and no one else. When Paul breaks things of with Miriam and starts a relationship with Clara, Gertrude is content with them together because Clara is only interested in a physical relationship. When the relationship with Clara fades Miriam tries her luck with Paul again, she says that she wants to marry him but Paul is so fixated with his love for his mother that when he feels the slightest feelings for Miriam he feels as though he is betraying her. He declines the proposal from Miriam and goes back to his mother. Gertrude Morel was a strong woman and mother but stubborn with her children in a way that she would want them to only look to her and not to walter, no matter what the situation was. Throughout the novel Gertrude ruins three lives, that of her her husbands, and her two eldest sons. Her husband Walter was not the best man for her but he did try to be a father to his children, but his wife made it almost impossible for him to do so. He is ostracized from the family throughout the novel, his life is ruined because Gertrude made him loose the only family he had before he had a chance of being a part of it. Her eldest son and first born child William, is so fixated on his mothers approval that he learns to hate the woman that he will be married to, that marriage would become like his parents. In that way Williams life is ruined by his own mother. Her third child and second son Paul can not have a stable relationship with women because he loves his mother too much, his life is ruined because once his mother is gone he is left with nothing and still can not hold a relationship together. References Spilka, Mark. â€Å"Counterfeit Loves† Twentieth Century Interpretations of Sons and Lovers. A Collection of Critical Essays Ed.Judith Farr, Prentice-Hall, INC., Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: 1970. 51-63. Print. Wang, Yi . â€Å"Should I Use Underlining or Italics?† College of Foreign Languages, Hebei University, China . ,29 March 2001. Web. 21 November 2012. .

The Philippine Revolution Against Spain Essay

1996 is a significant year for Filipinos all over the world. It marks the centennial of the Philippine Revolution, which started in 1896 and officially ended in 1902. The amount of literature generated during and after the Revolution, coupled with the continuing fascination on this period by historians and alike which have produced an infinite number of scholarly works, have validated the widespread perception that this was the most glorious page in the history of the Filipino people. The Philippine Revolution ended more than three centuries of Spanish colonial rule which began when Miguel Lopez de Legazpi founded the settlement of Cebu, the oldest Philippine city, in 1565. The Revolution is also heralded as the first anti-colonial independence movement in Asia. The Filipino proclamation of their independence two years after the outbreak of the Revolution was a momentous event for Filipinos of all persuasion. The Revolution began with the masses through the Katipunan, a secret, revolutionary, mass-based organization, and was later embraced by the middle class. Indeed, the Revolution was one of the few times where there was a convergence in the nationalist movements of the masses and the elite. The Katipunan The Katipunan (meaning â€Å"Association†) planned and initiated the Philippine Revolution. It was founded in Tondo, Manila, by Andres Bonifacio and a few other fellow urban workers on July 7, 1892. Its full Tagalog name is Kataastaasan Kagalang-galang na Katipunan nang manga Anak ng Bayan (Highest and Most Venerated Association of the Sons and Daughters of the Land). From its inception, Katipunan was forged by blood, with all its members enacting the traditional blood compact and signing their names with their own blood. The foremost goal of the Katipunan was political, the separation of the Philippines from Spain. Its members also recognized and performed a civic duty which was mutual assistance and the defense of the poor and the oppressed. The Katipunan was steered by Bonifacio, who became known as the Supremo (Supreme) of the Katipunan, and he was ably supported by Emilio Jacinto, who emerged as the â€Å"Brains of the Katipunan.† Philippine historians regard Bonifacio as the â€Å"Great Plebeian† because he came from a poor family in  Tondo and worked as a warehouse clerk. Despite his poverty, Bonifacio was able to educate himself by reading the works of Rizal and the French revolutionists. Because of its brotherhood appeal, Katipunan was swift in recruiting members from the peasants and the working class. Philippine historian Reynaldo Ileto points out that the Katipunan belonged to a long tradition of social movements in Philippine history which fortunately have been disparaged and branded by authorities and the elite as â€Å"illicit associations† and its members as bandits. Like most of these popular movements, the Katipunan was clothed in millenarianism. In their writings, Bonifacio and Jacinto described the pre-Spanish period as an era of kasaganaan (great abundance) and kaginhawaan (prosperity). The demise of this glorious era was a result of the tyranny of Spanish colonial rule. The Katipunan then envisioned the future as one marked by kalayaan (independence), a state of being where there would once again be liwanag (knowledge) and kasaganaan (prosperity). Kalayaan would mean a return to the pre-Spanish condition of prosperity, bliss, and contentment. But it entailed cutting ties with the colonial mother, Spain, and the birth of a nurturing real mother, Inang Bayan or Motherland, meaning Philippines. From the start, the Katipunan drew inspiration from Jose Rizal, whose nationalist writings stirred an oppressed nation into action. His two novels, the Noli Me Tangere (Touch Me Not) and the El Filibusterismo (The Subversive), denounced the decadent colonial order presided by the incompetent and abusive colonial officials and the backward and immoral frailocracy. In the 1880s, Jose Rizal and his fellow ilustrados launched the Propaganda Movement in Europe where they vigorously campaigned for the implementation of the much needed reforms in the Philippines. Their failure to force Spain to institute reforms convinced the Katipunan that the call must be for revolution and not reform. In 1892, Bonifacio sought the counsel of Rizal on their planned revolution and the latter cautioned them because of its untimeliness and the people’s unpreparedness. Events forced Bonifacio and the Katipunan to launched the revolution. On August 23, 1896, the Katipunan was discovered by the Spanish authorities, prompting Bonifacio and the Katipuneros to tear their cedula (identification card), which symbolized their colonial oppression, and to declare in Pugad Lawin the beginning of the Philippine Revolution. The Spanish execution of Rizal on December 30, 1896 further emboldened the  religious Filipinos who saw Rizal’s martyrdom as similar to the crucifixion of Jesus Christ, i.e., to redeem his people. Ethnicity and the Creation of National Identity Initially, the Revolution appeared to be an entirely Tagalog affair. The first eight provinces to rise in arms were all in the Tagalog region and its adjacent areas: Bulacan, Nueva Ecija, Tarlac, Pampanga, Manila, Laguna, Cavite, and Batangas. Even among these provinces, fighting was minimal except for Cavite, Bulacan, and, of course, Manila. Most of the principal revolutionary leaders were Tagalogs, and their initial appeal of support was directed towards the Katagalugan or the Tagalog people. This was not surprising since prior to the Revolution, Filipinos did not think of themselves as one homogenous race. Identity was instead linked with regional ethnicity. The Spanish policy of divisiveness aimed at effecting colonial rule promoted and encouraged regional isolation and ethnic distinctions. By the nineteenth century the term â€Å"Filipino† referred to the Spanish insulares or those born in the Philippines. The Filipinos in general were loathingly called indios and their identity was rooted on their regional origin or ethnic affiliation: Tagalog, Kapampangan, Cebuano, Ilocano, Ilonggo, etc. In the first two years of the Revolution, battles raged mainly in the Tagalog provinces. Outside the Katagalugan, responses were varied. Pampanga, which was close to Manila, was uninvolved in the Revolution from September 1896 to the end of 1897, perhaps because the conditions which drove the Tagalogs to rise in arms were not totally similar in Pampanga. For instance, friar estates or church monopoly of landholdings which triggered agrarian unrest in Tagalog areas was not pervasive in Pampanga. Besides apathy, there were those, such as some Albayanos of Bicol, who were even apprehensive of rumors of a â€Å"Tagalog rebellion† aimed at ousting the Spaniards and exercising Tagalog hegemony over the non-Tagalog ethnic groups. Historian Leonard Andaya claims that what brought the Revolution to the non-Tagalog areas was Aguinaldo’s policy of encouraging his military officials to return to their home province and mobilize local support. For instance, the Revolution came late in Antique, and it was due to General Leandro Fullon, an Antiqueno principalia general of Aguinaldo, who went to his home province to spread the Revolution. Even after the Revolution spread to the rest of Luzon and  the Visayas, there were still suspicions as to the real motives of the Tagalogs. For example, the Iloilo elite changed the name of their provisional revolutionary government and called it the Federal State of the Visayas since they did not want to recognize the supremacy of Aguinaldo and the Tagalogs. They preferred instead a federal arrangement composed of the three main island groups – Luzon, Visayas, and Mindanao. These reservations and suspicions by non-Tagalogs were somehow reinforced by the initial writings and proclamations of key Tagalog personalities of the Revolution. Bonifacio wrote a revolutionary piece which he entitled â€Å"Ang Dapat Mabatid ng mga Tagalog† or â€Å"What the Tagalogs Should Know.† Aguinaldo, in his memoirs, wrote chapters entitled â€Å"The Tagalog Government Begins† and â€Å"Long Live the Tagalogs.† But in the absence of a general, generic term to collectively refer to the inhabitants of the archipelago, Filipino being a term originally reserved for the Spanish insulares, Tagalog may have appeared to the leaders of the Revolution as a logical substitute because of its indigenous element. In due time, however, Aguinaldo’s proclamations gradually introduced the idea that all the inhabitants of the Philippines are Filipinos. Tagalog became less used and in its place Filipino was increasingly mentioned. The Revolution likewise assumed a national character. The declaration of Philippine independence was both significant and symbolic in the imagining and forging of a Filipino nation-state. Although there was a gradual acceptance of the term Filipino, nonetheless up until the early American period, Tagalog was still occasionally used. General Macario Sakay, a Tagalog general who continued the war against the Americans even after Emilio Aguinaldo was captured, called his government in 1902 the Tagalog Republic, although its charter noted that Visayas and Mindanao were included in his Republic. Filipino Women Revolutionaries Like ethnicity, gender played a significant role during the Revolution. As early as 1892, the Katipunan had a women’s chapter, Katipuneras, which was mostly made up of the wives, mothers, sisters, and daughters of the Katipuneros. While the Katipuneros men held clandestine meetings in the interior or back of a house, the Katipuneras provided the diversionary tactics in the living room for passers-by to see. Some of these Katipuneras  were Gregoria de Jesus, Andres Bonifacio’s wife, who became known as the Lakambini or First Lady of the Katipunan; Jose Rizal’s sisters; and Melchora Aquino who was also called Tandang Sora (Old Sora). Tandang Sora became a legend because she was a medicine woman who stitched the wounded and cured the sick. Her home was used by the Katipunan for their clandestine meetings and she served the Revolution by rendering her â€Å"medical† expertise to Katipunan members. There were also numerous Filipinas who distinguished themselves in the battlefield. In 1896, Gregoria Montoya y Patricio, upon the death of her Katipunero husband, led the charge of a thirty men unit while holding a Katipunan flag on one hand and a sharp-bladed bolo (machete) on another hand. She used a white piece of cloth, commonly used during mass, to ward off bullets. Another Filipina revolutionary was Agueda Kahabagan who fought the Spaniards armed with a rifle, brandishing a bolo and dressed in white. Teresa Magbanua, on the other hand, earned the sobriquet â€Å"Joan of Arc† of the Visayas for the valor she displayed in many battles. But Filipino women’s participation during the Revolution was not confined to actual fighting. Rosario Lopez, a scion of the wealthy hacendero Lopez clan of Negros, donated firearms to the revolutionary cause. Similarly, women of Cavite utilized their business connections to form a network of contacts for the Revolution. The Filipino Red Cross, established in 1863, became another venue for women participation in the Revolution. In 1899, the Red Cross, under the leadership of the wife of Emilio Aguinaldo, had thirteen chapters spread out from Ilocos Norte to Batangas. Conventional female activities such as sewing and cooking were utilized outside the homes to serve the needs of Filipino troops. Struggle Between the Masses and the Elite Aside from ethnicity and gender, class conflict was central to the Revolution. In the aftermath of the outbreak of the revolution, most of the ilutstrados or the nineteenth century middle class denounced the Katipunan and renewed their loyalty to Spain. Many ilustrados immediately condemned the revolution as an irrational action of uneducated masses. Some, like Rizal, believed that it was an ill-timed and ill-prepared struggle. But many did so out of allegiance to Spain. Later when the Katipunan was winning battles, some ilustrados gradually turned around and embraced the revolution. These ilustrados, though driven by nationalism like the masses,  fought to preserve their social status and economic wealth. Their interests and agenda vastly differed from the objectives of the Katipuneros. Other ilustrados preferred to remain fence-sitters until the tide of the Revolution was clear. In a study of the municipal and provincial elite of Luzon during the Revolution, Milagros C. Guerrero concluded that well-to-do Filipinos as well as municipal and provincial officials refused to join the Revolution during 1897 and early 1898. There was even hesitancy even after they did join. Many history books assert that class coflict was symbolized by the leadership struggle between Bonifacio and Aguinaldo. In contrast to the working class background of Bonifacio, Aguinaldo was an ilustrado and a former gobernadorcillo or town executive in his home province of Cavite. Aguinaldo’s ascendance to prominence as a result of his strategic victories in battles naturally brought him into conflict with Bonifacio over the leadership of the Revolution. In a sense, their bitter struggle reflected the falling out of the masses and the ilustrados during the Revolution. It started as a result of the intramural between the two factions of the Katipunan in Cavite – the Magdiwang and Magdalo. Their conflict had deteriorated such that each one refused to assist the other in battles. Moreover, in one of the battles in Manila, the Caviteno forces even failed to provide assistance to the revolutionaries of Manila. Bonifacio as Supremo of the Katipunan was invited to Cavite to resolve the factional differences and thus ensure a united front against the Spaniards in the province. Once in Cavite, the ilustrados maneuvered to ease Bonifacio from the leadership. In the Tejeros Convention of March 22, 1897, they voted to supersede the Katipunan with a revolutionary government and an election of the officers of the new government was conducted. Aguinaldo was elected as President while Bonifacio lost in several elections for key posts before he finally won as Director of the Interior. But a Caviteno, Daniel Tirona, immediately questioned his lack of education and qualification for the post, and insisted that he be replaced instead by a Caviteno ilustrado lawyer, Jose del Rosario. Insulted and humiliated, Bonifacio as Supremo of the Revolution declared the election and the formation of the new government void. What followed was a black mark in the history of the Revolution. Aguinaldo, upon the prodding of his fellow, ilustrados, ordered the arrest and trial of Bonifacio on the grounds of treason. A bogus trial found Bonifacio and his  brother, Procopio, guilty, and they were sentenced to death. Aguinaldo gave his approval and the Bonifacio brothers were shot on May 10, 1897, at Mt. Tala, Cavite. In rationalizing the fate of Bonifacio, Aguinaldo and his men claimed Bonifacio was establishing his own government which would have subverted the revolutionary cause. His elimination was necessary to maintain unity under Aguinaldo’s leadership. Ironically, Bonifacio, the father of the Revolution, became a victim to the ambition and self-serving interests the ilustrados as personified by Aguinaldo. Truce of Biak-na-Bato and the Betrayal of the Revolution The death of Bonifacio was a turning point in the Revolution. The stewardship of the Revolution was left to Aguinaldo and the elite. But the Filipinos and the Spaniards faced a long haul. Aguinaldo’s troops were being routed in Cavite and, thus, his revolutionary government moved to the more secluded Biak-na-Bato in Bulacan. At this time, Aguinaldo’s commitment to the revolutionary cause became suspect. His military advisers persuaded him to issue a declaration that his Biak-na-Bato government was willing to return to the fold of law as soon as Spain granted political reforms. These reforms included the expulsion of the hated Spanish friars and the return of lands they appropriated from the Filipinos; Filipino representation in the Spanish Cortes; freedom of the press and religious tolerance; equality in treatment and payment for both peninsular and insular civil servants; and equality for all before the law. This pronouncement by Aguinaldo proved that he and the ilustrados were willing to return to the Spanish fold provided there were reforms and the ilustrado interests were met. The standoff in the battlefield prompted both sides to agree to an armistice. The Truce of Biak-na-Bato stipulated that Spain would pay financial remuneration to the Filipino revolutionaries in exchange for the surrender of arms and the voluntary exile abroad of Aguinaldo and the other leaders. Toward the end of December 1898, Aguinaldo and the other revolutionary leaders went into voluntary exile in Hong Kong and they were given the initial sum of 400,000 pesos, most of which were deposited in a Hongkong bank and used later on to purchase more weapons. Distrust on both sides resulted in the failure of the truce. Both sides were only biding time until they could launch another offensive. The coming of the Americans marked the second phase of the  Philippine Revolution. In Singapore, Aguinaldo met U.S. consul Spencer Pratt who persuaded him to cooperate with the Americans. In February 1898, the American warship Maine was mysteriously sunk in the waters of Havana, Cuba. This incident was the immediate cause of the Spanish-American War. Admiral George Dewey who was stationed in Hongkong received a cable on April 25 announcing that war had commenced between the two countries. He was ordered to retake the Philippines and, on May 1, 1898, his flagship U.S.S. Olympia defeated the Spanish fleet in the Battle of Manila Bay at a cost of eight wounded Americans and around five hundred casualties on the Spanish side. Back in Hongkong, Aguinaldo was told by U.S. consul Rounsenville Wildman that Dewey wanted him to return to the Philippines to resume the Filipino resistance. Aguinaldo claimed that the American officials prodded him to establish a Philippine government similar to the United States, and that they pledged to honor and support the Filipinos’ aspiration for independence. Spencer, Wildman, and Dewey would later deny having made any promise or commitment to Aguinaldo. Proclamation of Philippine Independence  and the Birth of the Philippine Republic With transportation provided by the Americans, Aguinaldo and his leaders returned to Cavite. They resumed their war offensive against Spain and reestablished the revolutionary government. Because of the exigencies of the time, Aguinaldo temporarily established a dictatorial government, but plans were afoot to proclaim the independence of the country especially since the Spaniards were reeling from defeat one battle after another. From the balcony of his house in Kawit, Cavite, Aguinaldo declared on June 12, 1898 the independence of the Filipinos and the birth of the Philippine Republic. For the first time, the Philippine flag, sewn in Hongkong by the womenfolk of the revolutionaries, was unfurled. Two bands played Julian Felipe’s Marcha Nacional Filipina which became the Philippines’ national anthem. The declaration further emboldened the fighting Filipinos. On June 18, 1898, Aguinaldo passed a decree calling for the reorganization of the provincial and municipal govern ments. In her article, Guerrero claims that following the liberation of Luzon from the hands of the Spaniards, elections were held in Cavite, Bataan, Batangas, and Pampanga in June and July; in Manila,  Tayabas (now Quezon), Pangasinan, Ilocos Norte, and Ilocos Sur in August; in Abra, Camarines Norte, Camarines Sur, and Nueva Ecija in September; in Nueva Vizcaya and La Union in October; and in Isabela, Catanduanes, Albay, and Sorsogon in December. The elected provincial and town officials were mostly the same local officials during the Spanish period. This was because the requirements for voting and nomination to public office were restricted to those who were â€Å"citizens of 20 years of age or above who were ‘friendly’ to Philippine independence and were distinguished for their ‘high character, social position and honorable conduct, both in the center of the community and the suburb’.† These provisions automatically excluded the masses in the electoral process, and insured continued elite supremacy of local politics, even by those who were Spanish supporters and sympathizers during the early phase of the Revolution. Since the ilustrados had exclusive control of the electoral process, the provincial and municipal reorganization merely resulted in perpetuating elite dominance of society and government. Guerrero claims that records of the period reveal the composition of the municipal elite was unaltered and local offices simply rotated within their ranks. But not all areas of Luzon came under the control of the ilustrados during the Revolution. In some towns, â€Å"uneducated† and â€Å"poor† masses were elected by an electorate who most probably did not meet the qualifications stipulated in Aguinaldo’s decree. Guerrero claims that the principalia or ilustrado local officials of Solano in Nueva Ecija and Urdaneta in Pangasinan complained over the election of the â€Å"uneducated and ignorant† who they argued were â€Å"totally incapable† of governing. But this was more of an aberration since the general picture was one of elite dominance and the alienation of the masses. Despite Aguinaldo’s order abolishing three hundred years of Spanish polo or forced labor, the local elite persisted in demanding personal services from the people, on top of the taxes levied against them. In some towns and provinces conditions were even worse as the elite wrangled among themselves, especially since Aguinaldo did not clearly delineate the responsibilities of the elected civilian and appointed military officials. This leads some historians to conclude that the masses in towns and countryside were the eventual victims of what transpired during the Revolution. The American entry into the picture convinced the remaining fence-sitting ilustrados to support the Revolution. When rumors of an  impending Spanish-American War were circulating in April 1898, several noted ilustrados led by Pedro Paterno offered their services to the Spanish governor-general. Yet when Aguinaldo returned from exile, several ilustrados serving in the Spanish militia, like Felipe Buencamino, abandoned the Spaniards and announced their â€Å"conversion† to the revolutionary cause. Indeed, the resumption of the revolution brought an electrifying response throughout the country. From Ilocos in the north down to Mindanao in the south, there was a simultaneous and collective struggle to oust the Spaniards. Months later, when the Filipino-American War commenced, many ilustrados played the middle ground, i.e., on one han d, they sent words of support to Aguinaldo and, on the other, started contemplating on an autonomous status for the Philippines under the United States. An example was the Iloilo ilustrados who eventually sided with the Americans since their economic interests – sugar production and importation – dictated collaboration with the new colonizers. Indeed, in the parlance of contemporary Filipino political culture, the ilustrados were the classic â€Å"balimbing† or two-faced. Despite the constant vacillation of the elite, Aguinaldo and his advisers tapped on their services in organizing the Philippine Republic. Aguinaldo was eager to prove that the Filipinos could govern themselves, and in the process it would legitimize the Philippine Republic. Moreover, since he and his advisers were ilustrados, Aguinaldo only trusted his own kind – the wealthy, educated, and politically experienced – in the matter of governance. Thus, he called on them to convene and create a Congress which would draft a constitution. He wanted a Philippine constitution to complete the required trimmings of a sovereign, nation-state – flag, army, government, and constitution. In his actions, Aguinaldo was advised by Apolinario Mabini who became known as the â€Å"Sublime Paralytic† because his spirit was not deterred by his physical handicap, and the â€Å"Brains of the Revolution† due to his intellectual acumen. On January 21, 1899, Aguinaldo proclaimed the Malolos Constitution which was drafted by the ilustrados of the Malolos Congress. Two days later, the Philippine Republic was inaugurated in Malolos, Bulacan, the new capital of the fledging government. The Philippine Republic was, however, short-lived. From the start, Aguinaldo’s forces were fighting the Spaniards without military assistance from the Americans. Except for the Battle of Manila Bay,  the United States was not a major force in the fighting. The American troops did not arrive in the country until late June, and they saw no military action until August. But events starting with the Spanish surrender of Manila on August 13, 1898, doomed the end of Philippine independence. Although the Spanish troops had been routed in all fronts by the Filipinos, the continuing presence of the Americans was unsettling. Questions on actual American motives surfaced with the continuous arrival of American reinforcements. It did not take long for the Filipinos to realize the genuine intentions of the United States. The precarious and uneasy Philippine-American alliance collapsed on February 4, 1899, when the Philippine-American War broke out and threatened to annihilate the new found freedom of the Filipinos.